Evil Spirits and Spirit Possession

In her article, Betty (2005: 13) recognizes that evidence of evil spirits is voluminous and comes from many cultures and sources, both ancient and modern. She highlights, for example, that a great deal of Jesus’ ministry was devoted to exorcising ‘evil spirits’ or ‘demons’ from various subjects (Betty 2005: 13). Betty also acknowledges that, in today’s society, exorcisms are commonplace and there is no place in the world where they are unknown.

Despite the fact that demon possession and exorcisms are recognised worldwide, the vast majority of people think that spirits, at least the kind that oppress or possess us, are not real (Betty 2005: 14). Many link spirit possession with a diseased mind, such as the schizophrenic mind. According to Betty (2005: 29), “the paranoid schizophrenic mind becomes convinced of beliefs at odds with reality, hears voice that aren’t there or sees images that exist nowhere in the mind.” However, there is mounting evidence today that evil spirits do oppress and occasionally even possess people. For instance, in India, earth-bound spirits are forcibly and often spectacularly evicted from their victims by holy men. Additionally, in the West, several prominent psychologists have opened their minds to the possibility of ‘demonic’ oppression and participated in exorcisms. So, what is to be our response to this evidence? Are evil spirits real or just hallucinations of a sick brain? Should they be taken more seriously?

Betty (2005: 14) defines these aforementioned evil or demonic spirits as “more or less intelligent beings, insensible to us, with a will of their own who seem to bother or oppress us or, in rare cases, possess our bodies outright, and with whom we can relate in a variety of ways.” For example, Honwana (1997: 296) pronounces that, in Southern Mozambique, it is commonly believed that when an individual dies and the body is buried, the spirit remains as the effective manifestation of his or her power and personality. In other words, whilst we are visible, subject to the law of physics and have physical bodies, it may be possible that these spirits are another kind of being, invisible and not subjected to the laws of physics (Betty 2005: 19).

It can be argued that psychiatry need to react to this incoming evidence of spirit intervention. Betty (2005: 13) agrees and argues that “psychiatrists should question their materialist assumption that mental illness is strictly a matter of an aberrant brain, carefully examine the literature of possession, experiment to determine why exorcists and deliverance ministers often succeed where psychiatry fails, and develop a more complete inventory of techniques for healing the complete person.” What if spirits are real and not just hallucinations of diseased brains? Is it time to accept their existence in our world in terms of proper treatment and health?

Maybe it is time for psychiatry to make room for, or even embrace, spiritual therapies such as exorcisms as an alternative therapy in medical science (Betty 2005: 19). Perhaps we cannot ignore the recent studies highlighting the very reality of spirit possession. To do this may be ignorant and detrimental to some person’s health outcomes. If not now, then in the coming future, psychiatry will have to redesign the curriculum of medical schools and get about the business of healing all types of mental illness – those that originate in the brain, the soul, and in a hostile spiritual presence targeting the soul or brain of its victim.

References

Betty, S. (2005). The Growing Evidence for “Demonic Possession”: What Should Psychiatry’s Response be? Journal of Religion and Health, 44 (1), 13-30

Honwana, A. M. (1997). Healing for peace: Traditional healers and post-war reconstruction in Southern Mozambique. Journal of Peace Psychology, 3(3), 293-305.

Transhumanism, Science and Religion

Primitive religion enables human beings to draw connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, or ultimate questions (Geraci 2006: 229). All religions’ aim to answer ultimate questions such as ‘what happens when we die?’. Now, in an ever-changing scientific world, transhumanists are attempting to answer this question for us in new light. However, they view it as a challenge and a quiz that can be solved. Instead of accepting that there is a heaven or that karma will predict our next lives, these new-thinkers see the question as ‘what happens if we do not die?’ and ‘how can we make this happen?’. Therefore, they search for the question every religious person wants to answer, but believe they can do this by altering our biological bodies for immortal life on Earth, not in heaven. Therefore, in today’s society, religion and science are arguably beginning to merge into a term called transhumanism.

Despite the prevailing secular attitudes, some transhumanists pursue hopes traditionally espoused by religions, such as immortality albeit a physical one. As Tirosh-Samuelson (2012: 710) highlights, “rapid technological developments inspire the hope that human beings will live longer, healthier, and happier lives because technologies will remove biological imperfections and the social ills they cause.” Several belief systems, termed new religious movements, originating in the late twentieth century, share with transhumanism the goals of transcending the human condition by applying technology to the alteration of the body and mind. For example, the movement called Scientology focuses on transcending the human condition by applying technology to the alteration of the mind. Like transhumanists, Scientology adherents focus on the practical goals of using technology to help achieve longer and healthier lives. It can therefore be argued that there are similarities between transhumanism and Scientology. Additionally, there is, to some extent, a continuing dialogue between transhumanism and other faiths.

New religious movements, such as Scientology, are adopting technology and accepting it within religious practice. Considering the future of religion, will all religions come to adopt technology to some extent in a constant developing and digital world? Will it become necessary for religions to merge with technology to stay alive and thriving? Or will it be the lack of technology that will draw people into their faiths to escape the future industrialised world? Which road will religion take?

References

Geraci, R.M. (2006). Spiritual Robots: Religion and Our Scientific View of the Natural World. Theology and Science, 4(3), 229-246

Tirosh-Samuelson, H. (2012). Transhumanism as a Secular Faith. Zygon, 47(4), 710-734

Religion and Health: Should Doctors Prescribe Religion?

There is now a substantial body of research literature that claims to show the generally positive effects of religious involvement on a wide range of health outcomes. Many academics therefore follow the rationale that, as there is scientific evidence indicating the health advantages of religion, then it is the clinicians’ role to support and encourage patient spirituality. Numerous research papers have recently explored the clinical implications of the religion and health link. Larimore, Parker and Crowther (2002: 70) argue that “there are sufficient, research-based reasons for clinicians to provide basic spiritual interventions.” Religion and spirituality are therefore viewed by these supporters of spiritual care as an “adjunct of therapy” (Lawrence & Smith 2004: 626). These contentions argue that physicians should prescribe religion. However, there is a theological problem with this approach.

From a theological perspective, there is a major problem with doctors’ prescribing religious activities. Take the practice of prayer for example. Studies seeking evidence of prayer’s curative powers are grounded in a misunderstanding of the role of prayer in Western theistic traditions (Cohen et al 2000: 40). According to the work by Dr Herbert Bensen (1997: 126) on the relaxation response, by partaking in prayer, one consciously relaxes the mind and body, decreasing blood pressure and heart rate. Framed in this way, the ecclesial practice of prayer is understood as a kind of treatment modality (Cohen et al 2000: 40). In this sense, prayer becomes “one more in the arsenal of weapons available to medicine to fight against disease” (Cohen et al 2000: 40). However, prayer is not a strategy for controlling the outcome of events or an intervention whose effectiveness can be tested (Cohen et al 2000: 41). There is no way to prove a connection between prayer for recovery and the desired effect (Cohen et al 2000: 41). Prayer is therefore not a form of medical treatment and should not be used for extrinsic ends (Cohen et al 2001: 32).

No person can sincerely practice a faith solely for its health benefits (Cohen et al 2000: 41). A union with God can never be forced and, therefore, prayer is by no means the simple activity that it is assumed to be (Lawrence 2002: 76). It is not a sure means of getting God to give humans their way (Cohen et al 2000: 43). It is first and foremost an encounter with God. Adherents engage in prayer because that is where they enter into an intimate relation with God (Larimore et al 2002: 72). It is therefore from the perspective of faithful Christian discipleship fundamentally wrongheaded to view religious practices as detachable from faith (Cohen et al 2000: 45). According to Cohen et al (2000: 41), prescribing religion for health benefits reflects a “tendency to treat God merely as a means to human ends rather than as the one End.” Attempting to improve one’s health by means of religion therefore manipulates and moulds worship of the sacred into a self-serving exercise (Vandecreek 1999: 201). The very idea of doctors prescribing religious activities therefore trivializes, demeans and degrades religion (Lawrence 2002: 76).

References

Bensen, H. (1997). The Relaxation Response. In Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief. New York: Fireside.

Cohen, C. B., Wheeler, S. E., Scott, D. A. & the Anglican Working Group in Bioethics. (2000). Prayer as therapy: A challenge to both religious belief and professional ethics, The Hastings Center Report 30, 40-47.

Cohen, C. B., Wheeler, S. E., Scott, D. A. & the Anglican Working Group in Bioethics. (2001). Walking a fine line: Physician inquires into patients’ religious and spiritual beliefs, The Hastings Center Report 31, 29-39.

Larimore, W. L., Parker, M. & Crowther, M. (2002). Should clinicians incorporate positive spirituality into their practices? What does the evidence say?, Annals of Behavioral Medicine 24, 69-73.

Lawrence, R. J. (2002). The witches’ brew of spirituality and medicine, Annals of Behavioral Medicine 24, 74-76.

Lawrence, R. T. & Smith, D. W. (2004). Principles to make a spiritual assessment work in your practice, The Journal of Family Practice 53, 625-631.

VandeCreek, L. (1999). Should physicians discuss spiritual concerns with patients?, Journal of Religion and Health 38, 193-201.

Buddhism as a Commodity

According to Bucknell (2000: 468), ‘the presence of Buddhism in Australia dates from the 1850s.’ This Eastern religion has a long and varied history within this continent as well as in other Western societies. However, the contribution Buddhism makes to the current, contemporary Western society is not what one would expect from a religion. Buddhism, in the West, is arguably becoming more of a commodity, product, or a part of consumerism rather than a religion.

It is not uncommon for people living in this modern Western population to have a statue of Buddha or Buddhist prayer flags, or any like products, situated around their homes. I myself contribute to this ideology even though I am a Catholic. Looking around my room, I have two statues of Buddha, prayer flags, two posters of Buddha’s sayings and more. So, it is not a stretch to argue that an interest in Buddhist philosophy has arisen, or has become ‘cool’ and popular, in the West. It is not that Western populations are taking up the religion of Buddhism, but rather becoming interested in its iconography, rituals and philosophy.

Shops all over the world are full to the brim with Buddha souvenirs. Buddha, and therefore Buddhism, has become a marketable commodity. Statues come in all shapes and sizes while paintings display the Buddha in various poses. It seems, despite the legitimacy of the religion, people are willing to make some money out of the Buddha’s unmistakable popularity. It is interesting that Buddhism has become so commercialised. Such blatant commercialism would never be tolerated by other religions such as Islam or Christianity, so why should Buddhism? What is it with this Eastern religion that captivates the market? Why is it so widely accepted that the Buddha has become a piece of furniture or decorative item? And, is this an insult to the Buddha?

Siddhartha, the historical and true Buddha, has been buried by the commoditised Buddha. In other words, the commodity of the Buddha has buried the man. The ‘aestheticization of his awakening has erased his humanity,’ replacing it with an idealized hero (Dodge 2012). The historical Buddha has been shifted into a commodity. There are more Buddha images than any other icon in the world (Dodge 2012). Buddhism can therefore be argued to be being replaced by iconography and commercialism in the West. The historical Buddha is now second to the sellable Buddha.

This is also highlighted by Murray Paterson, a history and Study of Religion teacher. Murray, in a qualitative interview performed last year, reflected that he is an ‘atheist with an interest in Buddhist philosophy.’ This statement somewhat sums up what contemporary Western society is currently experiencing with Buddhism. Additionally, this quote idealises the future of Buddhism in the West. Perhaps there is no real future for the religion of Buddhism in Western societies, but a future for its philosophy and iconography as commodities and selling agents. Is the future of this religion to be understood in terms of consumerism?

Reference

Bucknell, Roderick S. 2000. "Engaged Buddhism in Australia." In Engaged Buddhism in the West,  Christopher S. Queen, Ed., 468-484. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

Dodge, Shyam. (2012). Burying the Buddha: A Postmortem Reflection. Elephant: Dedpicated to the Mindful Life. Retrieved from http://www.elephantjournal.com/2012/02/burying-the-buddha-a-postmortem-reflection-2/

Pentecostalism as the Future of Christianity

The denominations of Christianity are pluralistic in many ways, including in their understandings of worship (Empereur 2004: 15). According to Alvarado (2012: 135), the way people worship reveals both their understanding of God and contributes to their spiritual development. Worship therefore ushers adherents into an authentic and meaningful relationship with God and with each other. However, in contemporary society, “many people seek deeper and more meaningful spiritual lives” (Alvarado 2012: 136). Much of the contemporary population desire to experience worship in their churches in living, active and dynamic ways.

The tenets of Pentecostal worship which are passionate praise and emotional release make its expression a transformative, active, vibrant and moving encounter with God and the Holy Spirit (Alvarado 2012: 139). Pentecostal theology of worship therefore has much to offer Christianity and its adherents in terms of liturgy and ritual. According to Alvarado (2012: 135), “a Pentecostal revision of liturgy and liturgical theology will benefit the Church.” However, many churches are reluctant to abandon their prepared liturgy in favour of free-flowing worship like that of Pentecostalism.

Take Hillsong Worship for example. Hillsong embraces contemporary technological advances and recognises contemporary society’s needs to form a new practice of worship through a well-recognised music ministry. The repetition of the lyrics and the transforming melodies within its songs transform the individual participants so that they may transcend the normality of life for a special spiritual experience. It is thus a dynamic, transformational and spiritually formative event. This is exemplified in the following YouTube clip of a song called This I Believe (The Creed). This Hillsong Worship song is based on the Apostles Creed and is a unifying bold declaration of faith in Jesus Christ. Just by listening to and watching this video, the individual can gain a sense of the feelings one can attain from a new, more encompassing and active type of worship.

In an increasingly digital age, youth are becoming no longer interested in attending Church services as they find them ‘outdated’ or ‘boring.’ So, by adapting elements of the Pentecostal tradition in order to engage worshippers with the word of God and the Holy Spirit, it may strengthen the faith and encourage participation and church attendance in the future of Christianity. This view of liturgical reformation would revive our Christian hearts and give us the opportunity to be a worshipping community, like that shown in the above Hillsong video (Alvarado 2012: 151).

As Empereur expounds, “excellent parishes are like missionary outposts that are in conflict with the surrounding culture but are trying to sanctify it.” So, in a world overtaken by technology and secularism, an enlivening of the Christian faith is somewhat necessary to renew faith within the adherent’s lives. So, is Pentecostalism the future of Christianity?

References

Alvarado, J. (2012). Worship in the Spirit: Pentecostal Perspectives on Liturgical Theology and Praxis. Journal of Pentecostal Theology, 21: 135–151

Empereur, J. (2004). Worship Wars in the Roman Catholic Church. Liturgy, 19(4): 15-24.

Secularization and Counter-Secularization

In today’s world, fundamentalism is often considered a strange, rare, hard-to-understand and hard-to-explain phenomenon. However, Berger argues that, when you look at the contemporary world today, what is rare is not the phenomenon of fundamentalism, but knowledge of it.

Berger goes on to say that the assumption that we live in a secularised world is false. The world is as furiously religious as it ever was, and in some places more than ever. Berger defines secularization theory as “modernization necessarily leads to a decline of religion, both in society and in the minds of individuals.” However, this is wrong. Although secularisation has had some effect in some places, it has also provoked strong movements of counter-secularisation. The relation between religion and modernity is therefore rather complicated.

To some people, modernity and secularisation is the enemy. To others, it is some kind of invincible world-view to which religious beliefs and practices should adapt themselves. In this sense, religious phenomena is considered backward or superstitious to some extent. However, this can be argued against. If we really lived in a highly secularised society, as some believe we do, then religious institutions would be expected to survive to the degree that they manage to adapt to secularity (Berger 4). But, in fact, religious communities have survived and even flourished to the degree that they have not tried to adapt themselves to the alleged requirements of a secularized world.

Take Islam for example. The world is currently experiencing an Islamic upsurge. Berger explains this as an impressive revival of emphatically religious commitments overtaking vast geographical scope and affecting every single Muslim country from North Africa to South-East Asia (7). This resurgence is bringing about a restoration of distinctively Islamic life-styles.

For instance, many daughters of secularised professionals are adopting the hijab, the Islamic headscarf or veil. This is occurring in predominately Western-style higher education such as universities in Egypt and Turkey. So, the movement is by no means restricted to the less modernized or backward sectors of society.

In my opinion, and through research conducted in my past, I can confirm that the resurgence of the hijab in Western societies is indeed occurring in the contemporary world, and for positive reasons. Today, the wearing of the hiab can function as a way of establishing identity. The wearing of the hijab now, for Muslim feminists such as Leila Ahmed, affirms pride in Muslim identity in Western societies. As I established in an essay last year:

“In Western societies, some Muslim women wear the hijab to find pride in their ethnic identities (Howard 2012: 154). It can be a powerful symbol of Muslim identity. Muslim women consciously reinforce their religious identity by adopting "scripturally ordained apparel" (Gabriel & Hannan 2011: 14). One Muslim woman says she wears it "as a way of openly identifying with a group that people have prejudices about" (Ahmed 2011: 8).”

So, in contemporary society, the wearing of the hijab affirms pride in Muslim women’s Muslim identity. This resurgence therefore acknowledges Berger’s theory, being that religious communities have survived and even flourished in the wake of secularisation, to the degree that they have not adapted themselves to the modern world, but adopted and restored traditional religious life-styles. In this instance, secularisation has in fact caused a counter-secularisation approach, or resurgence of religion, the opposite of what this theory attempts to achieve.

Secularisation is therefore not a theory that stands true today, despite popular belief. As Berger concludes, “those who neglect religion in their analyses of contemporary affairs do so at great peril” (18).

References

Ahmed, Leila. (2011). A Quiet Revolution: The Veil's Resurgence from the Middle East to America. London: Yale University Press.

Berger P. The desecularization of the world. A global overview. In P. Berger. The desecularization of the world. Resurgent religions and world politics. Grand Rapis, MI: William Erdmans & Co.

Gabriel, Theodore & Hannan, Rabiha. (2011). Islam and the Veil: Theoretical and Regional Contexts. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Howard, E. (2012). Banning Islamic veils: Is gender equality a valid argument? International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 12 (14). DOI: 10.1177/1358229112464450

The Future of Witchcraft

In his article, Clark begins by saying that no two things could be further apart than demonology and science (2005: 151). However, he quickly changes his mind on this statement. He highlights that, from the 15^th to the 18^th century, questions dominating witchcraft concerned its very possibility as a genuine occurrence in the physical world (151). In other words, questions of demons and witches were a commonality for scientists in these eras. Clark defines demonology as a “study of a natural order in which the existence of demonic actions and effects was, largely, presupposed” (151).

The complete opposite of this idea and definition exists today. Modern science refers the deeds of devils and witches to a realm of supernatural, wholly beyond natural laws (Clark 152). As C.S. Lewis foregrounds, “such creatures are not part of the subject matter of natural philosophy” (Clark 152). Nowadays, it is regarded as occult or pseudo-science. Themes such as demons and witches have consequently become incompatible with scientific insight and progress.

Clark terms this development in scientific knowledge as the “rise of science and decline of magic.” This is an interesting thought. In my perspective, this magic that he is referring to is like religion. The word ‘magic’ can just as easily be substituted with ‘religion.’ So, the rise of science can be said to have led to a decline of magic and religion. As we become increasing aware of the world around us and advance in knowledge, then there becomes a decreasing interest in things such as magic and religion to explain ultimate questions. Nowadays, magic is termed “supernatural,” basically meaning ‘non-existent,’ or an idea from a past time. Does that mean religion will follow this path too? As science rises higher and higher, will religion become extinct and a part of history?

Clark argues that before enlightenment, and the coming of ‘new’ science, things were different, metaphysically speaking, and nature was thought to have other limits. He therefore views the modern era’s scepticism as not a victory of knowledge over ignorance, but rather a corollary of knowing nature according to different rules. In early modern Europe, it was the unanimous opinion that witches and demons, in fact, really did exist (Clark 152). Demonology was a part of early modern science and nature. So, rather than calling this period ‘foolish’ or ‘irrational’, the best way sum it up is by associating demonology with development and advancement in natural knowledge, not by stagnation or decay (Clark 156).

So, I wonder, is the extinction of religion next on this road of development and advancement? In the future, I ponder whether we will again regard nature according to different rules to the one’s we recognise now. Will religion become the new magic? Will it become a part of the supernatural in years to come? Will future scientists see us as ‘irrational’ for our somewhat unanimous opinion that God, or some kind of afterlife, really does exist?

Reference

Clark, S. 2005. Thinking with Demons. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ch. 10